Why Do Most Teenagers Smoke Psychology Essay

Why Do Most Teenagers Smoke Psychology Essay Smoking is defined as the inhalation of the smoke of burning tobacco in cigarettes, pipes, and cigars. The smoke that inhaled contains about 4,000 chemicals, including cancer-causing nicotine, tar, and carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, ammonia and hydrogen cyanide (Martin T, 2008). Smoking is also an addictive habit that can have long negative effects on health, including mental and physical health (Nyholm C, 2009). There are many negative effects cause by smoking such as lung diseases, heart diseases, stroke and increasing blood pressure (Iannelli V, 2004). Tar is the brown, tacky material that left behind at the end of the cigarette filter. It makes a smokers teeth and fingers brown and coats everything it touches with a brownish-yellow film. Tar in the cigarette smoke paralyzes the cilia in the lungs and leads to lung diseases. For examples, emphysema, bronchitis and lung cancer (Martin 2006). Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a type of gas which is colorless, neutral and tasteless. When the level of carbon monoxide in the blood increases, it will decrease the ability to carry oxygen. It is harmful to the body at any level and it can cause death while long-term exposure at lower levels can lead to heart disease (Aiers 2007). Nicotine is an active drug which is also a stimulant that activates the brains rewards system can be found in cigarette. Nicotine induces feelings of pleasure and increases mental awareness when it reaches the brain. Nicotine also constricts blood flow to the heart, thus increasing blood pressure and heart rate (Besinger 2003). Hydrogen cyanide, a colorless, poisonous gas, is one of the toxic present in cigarette smoke. Breathing in small amounts of hydrogen cyanide may cause a person headache, dizziness, weakness, nausea, and vomiting while breathing in larger amounts may cause them gasping, irregular heartbeats, fainting, and rapid death (Martin 2008). There are many factors causing teenagers smoke such as peer pressure, the feel good syndrome, curiosity, and the power of role models. Usually teenagers start smoking when their best friend smokes, but this is not the only factor as parental smoking can make it seem normal to do, the media can also make it look more attractive, and sometimes teenagers have very easy access to tobacco products (Gorman 1996). Teenagers always look for approval and acceptance from their peers. Friends who smoke will always encourage them to smoke (Christensen SA, 2008). This become a strong force for teenagers start to smoke just to fit in with the crowd. Frequently they feel confident and pressured. Some teenagers believe that smoking makes them more popular, cool, attractive, sexy or strong. They just want to have a cool look when people around see them and did not think of the negative effects that will affect their health (Evans 2008). 2.2 Feel good syndrome Smoking is a way to avoid feeling unpleasant emotions such as sadness, distress, and worry. It can hide apprehensions, fears, and pain. This is accomplished moderately through the chemical effects of nicotine on the brain.  Nicotine is one of the main ingredients in cigarettes which are poison and as addictive as heroin and cocaine (Stevenson J, 2008).When smoking, the release of brain chemicals makes smokers feel like coping and dealing with life and stressful emotional situations. Nicotine in the cigarette will increase the level of good feeling (Dr. Annette 2009). 2.3 Curiosity Cigarettes are available everywhere and almost anybody can get them. Wanted to know how smoke a cigarette feels like is always stated as a reason for teenagers to try to smoke a cigarette. People always feel curios and wanted to try something new in their life at teen age. Because of the availability of getting a cigarette is easy and the curiosity of teenagers, therefore it increase the number of teenagers who smoke (Evans 2008). 2.4 The power of role models Teens are most influenced by other friends close in age or slightly older, including siblings. Many of them smoke because their parents are smokers (Christensen SA, 2008). Therefore, a person whose best friends or older siblings smoke is much more likely to try smoking. In some cases, this is because the person looks up to his friends or family members and wants to be like them. Some of them think that doing the same thing only they can join in with the people around them although they know is not good for health (Evans 2008). 2 2.5 Media Portrayals of smoking in the media are nearly all attractive. Many of the teenagers admire the actors will follow what the actors do by watching those movie or drama. They do not think of the negative effect of smoking on their health but just want to be like the actors. They also do not think carefully whether the action did in the drama or movie is good or bad but just do it. Besides that, smoking also appears in music videos. Cigars are mainly seen as a symbol that goes with living the high life (Harsanyi 2007). 2.6 Help losing weight For some, teenager thought smoking can help them to lose their weight. They will use being overweight as an excuse to smoke (Spitzer J, 2003). Instead of eating, many teenagers especially girls will choose to smoke a cigarette. This keeps their minds off from food. Some of the teenagers think that smoking can help them achieve the look they want. They learn about this weight control methods mostly from their friends, so they start skipping meals and use cigarettes to replace the meal. Smoking does kill craving for food, but it does not help to lose weight as many as they think (Hutton 1996). Methods to prevent smoking There are many methods to prevent teenagers smoke so that they will have a healthy life and prevent from getting some disease. Everyone should know the method and prevent the people around them smoke so that it would not affect their health. By prevent from smoking, people would have a longer lifespan and can live happily because of having a healthy life. 3.1 Governments role Country should make more efforts to prevent teenagers smoke. More information about the effect of smoking should show by public service announcements. For example, show some pictures that how the smokers lungs look like. The country should also enforce the rules so that teenagers could not smoke under age. Besides, the sale of cigarettes in the country also should decrease (Abel 2009).It is also necessary to have anti-smoking campaign especially for teenagers at school and public areas. Teen anti-smoking campaign will definitely be helpful. Professional doctors should be volunteers to talk about the negative effect of smoking during the anti-smoking campaign to the teenagers. Examples of the campaign are Taknak!!, Fight smoking and A Powerful Tool for Health Promotion (Siegel M, 1998). Those anti tobacco campaigns will motivate the youth to know the negative effects of smoking cigarettes on health, economy and mentality and benefits of quitting smoking. It may also motivate teenagers to stay away from smoking (Jacoby p.A19). In addition, anti smoking slogans are also used to influence those smokers to quit or prevent teenagers from smoking. There are many slogans use to prevent teenagers from smoking such as Too much smoke will leave you broke, If you cant stop smoking, cancer will, There are cooler ways to die than smoking and You smoke, you die early, you save the government money (Bose D, 2009). 3 3.2 Parents role Parents should give more information about the negative effect of smoking to their children since they are still young and small. Almost all the first time smoking happens before high school graduation. If teenager has not started smoking before he or she graduates, chances are he or she never will. That is good news because parents still have the time to influence their choices of not trying smoking (Witmer 2006). Parents also should set a good example to their children by not smoking. If parents smoke and do not want to influence their children, the only way to prevent their children from smoking is avoid smoking in front of them and do not smoke at the place where their children can see such as in the house or car (Mayo 2010). 3.4. Teachers role Teachers also play an important role in preventing teenagers smoke. As a teacher, the way to prevent student smoke at teen age are care teenagers more and give them more teaching on the effect of smoking. Besides, teacher also should observe the students and stop them from smoking if found out that they had started to smoke. More moral and religion teaching should be given to the students in the school so that students can prevent themselves from start smoking. The school should have more healthy activities so that student will have more time to participate in good activities (Carney S, 2007). 3.5 Develop self respect and confidence There are many reasons that why teenagers smoke and one of the reason is because of peer pressure. Most of them think that it is a way to look cool and be a part of the crowd. They have to instill enough self respect, esteem and confidence so that they do not feel the need for external approval. People around should help teenagers build up their friendships, shape a healthy body image and deal with stress, without thinking about tobacco use. By helping teenagers and let them have enough confidence to themselves, they would not think of changing themselves by smoking and thus, they can prevent from smoking (Worth 1999). Conclusion In conclusion, there are many factors causing teenagers smoke such as pressure, the feel good syndrome, curiosity, the power of role models, media effect and help losing weight. Having campaign, parents role, national efforts, teachers role and develop self respect and confidence are important in this case so that it can prevent teenagers to smoke. Smoking is not good for health and there are many negative effect of smoking. Therefore, teenager should avoid smoking and take care of their health. (1864words) 4

Reading Difficulties In Students With Dyslexia?

Reading Difficulties In Students With Dyslexia? INTRODUCATION Reading is a necessary skill for success in all societies, and the ability to read throughout various contexts effectively likely to improve self confidence and social progress as well as ones potential carrier. However, Reading difficulties is the problem that faces many students with dyslexia across different educational system. It seems clear that there are two main methods of conceiving LD in general and the natural reality concept of dyslexia. One main definition relates to psychological/medical model and the other is social model (Kevin, 1999). It is frequently pointed out that reading skill is complicated because it is based on two main processes which are coding, comprehension. They require learning all alphabetical characters and the outcome of knowledge as well as interaction with the readers own experiences and access to results through the text. According to H. Lee Swanson, Karen R. Harris, Steve Graham (2006) reading difficulties is deficit in learning processes which are include visual perception and perceptual Kinetic perceptionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ etc. They established training programs for this processes which are prerequisite for learning to read, such as audio and visual perception. However, this trend has been criticized by researchers; because the theoretical philosophy was relatively weak and it was not grounded on scientific based evidence instead it was meant to see only virtual behavior. On the other hand, in the sixties and seventies of the last century has returned to focus on direct teaching and structured learning, which focus on Code-emphasis and Whole Language (Hoien, 2000). Unfortunately, it is clear that there is no known medical alternative to reduce the severity of cognitive processing delay in pupils with reading difficulties. Therefore, teachers are required to work instructional adjustments as a result, students with reading difficulties are to be successful in an suitable academic environment that help to reduce reading difficulties (such as eliminate any source of disturbance at mainstream classrooms and resource room). One of the most important instructional adjustments is use of basic procedures for appropriate intervention in early stage of educational ladder to avoid reading problems in students through use of various programs of intervention by specialized teachers and clinical psychologist. Another instructional adjustment which is methods of teaching students with dyslexia how do they read? (Kevin,1999). On the other hand, dyslexia friendly schools are an appropriate environment for children. They are to be provided with effective support and awareness of their additional requirements. The aim of this very brief essay is to discuss different definitions of dyslexia. Intervention to reduce reading difficulties in students with dyslexia will be discussed with a focus on stages of intervention in England; issues associated with intervention and also focus on Reading Recovery. Teaching Methods for students with reading difficulties will be examined in terms of Whole Language Instructions and Code- emphasis Instructions. Finally, Facilitating dyslexia friendly schools will be explored in brief. 1. Definition of Dyslexia It seems a controversial issue relatively in the beginning, because dyslexia has defined in many approaches, some of the definitions reflect the theories of causation, while the other definitions in an attempt to describe dyslexia. It seems clear that dyslexia involves more than one condition as it conveys a conceptual difficulty in reading skills for the child as well as a number of other reasons ((Rice, 2004). A hundred years have passed by since the first systematic definition of dyslexia as well as the diagnosis was established( Frith, 1999) and there is still considerable debate among professionals, professionals, psychologists and teachers about the conceptual issues of dyslexia, whoever in fact not far from agreement on their knowledge of concepts, skills development needs and capabilities, as well as diagnosis. Moreover, professionals and associations interested in special education differ in the definition of a large private educational terms, particularly in the case of attention deficit attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), attention deficit disorder(ADD) and dyslexia. In one community, has experienced difficulty in teaching reading as indicating poor reading skills that must be addressed by large-effective teaching methods. On the other hand, it is observed that another community the same way of reading difficulties in dyslexia, which contains an individual educational plan (IEP) that need to be highly efficient for the education of each individual case. Moreover, there are many of reliable definitions that have been adopted from a wide range of different instruction environments, such as definition of the British Association for Dyslexia (2001), which seems to be a descriptive definition , which indicate that dyslexia can be seen as : A combination of abilities and difficulties which affect the learning process in one or more of reading, spelling, and writing. Accompanying weakness may be identified in areas of speed of processing, short-term memory, sequencing, auditory and / or visual perception, spoken language and motor skills. It is particularly related to mastering and using written language, which may include alphabetic, numeric and musical notation ( Reid, 2002). It is agreed widely that reading skill is key for all people to complete the learning process successfully and appears to be agreement that the learning process needs to be a large number of simple skills, which requires the functions are ordered from different regions of the brain (both left and right from the Brocas area and Hamichaer ), moreover, the sequence of actions that may make it one of the most complex operations. It is clear that all teachers, practitioners and parents should have information about children with dyslexia and the most important problems they face, especially in reading to understand the definition of the educational process (British Dyslexia Association, 2003). On the other, the World Federation of Neurologists (1968) defined it as; Dyslexia is a disorder manifested by difficulty in learning to read despite conventional instruction and socio-cultural opportunity. It is dependent upon fundamental cognitive disabilities which are frequently of constitutional origin. (Mortimore, 2003, by Reid, 1994, p.2). If we pay enough attention to this definition it is clear that the greatest changes considerate on the late sixties that stress and characterized problems to complete reading process to be successful, and the new millennium, that is a interested far more than three different stages of description, the first, behavioural, which is the most important element for teachers and practitioners to work daily with children with dyslexia, particularly in the school, and second, cognitive which is more relate to teacher learning difficulties who is responsible for assessment of any kind of learning difficulties and then Preparation an individual education plan, third, the level of biological, which refers to dyslexia for kind of nervous-developmental in developmental deficit of biological origin(Frith, 2003). However, if we compare the definition of the British Dyslexia Association in the definition of (2001) of dyslexia with the equivalent, which presented by the World Federation of Neurology (1968), we will note other potential conflicts, according to the conceptual dimension to the definition of dyslexia. On the other hand, it is perfectly balanced in those who wish to present the strengths and weaknesses of children with dyslexia: dyslexia is a combination of difficulties, and capacity that may affect the learning process in one or more of the writing, reading and spelling. It might be possible, identify weaknesses in visual perception, processing speed of the short-term memory, sequencing, as well as audio, spoken language and motor skills. and that are relevant to mastering and using written language, which may contain the alphabet and identify the digital as well as musical. 2. Causes of Dyslexia According to ( Rice, 2004 ) there is still no consensus on the underlying causes of dyslexia. It is frequently point out that not all the difficulty in reading or writing means dyslexia. However, there are many scientists who believe that inheritance and hearing problems at an early age may cause dyslexia. This will be discussed in more details. 2.1 Inheritance May not be possible that dyslexia is not a strong characteristic that will be inherited, even if one or both parents have it. On the other hand, this may be possible. it clear that forty per cent of the people and explained that dyslexia has a history of learning difficulties in their family. According to Brain scanning of children with dyslexia by specialists in the field of medicine that bunches of cells beneath the surface in the front left side of the brain are responsible for reading problems (ibid.). This group of cells moving on the surface of brain cells while growing in the fetus, which does not occur with children with dyslexia. In addition, they have to be smaller mango cellular system, which is liable for recognition, for example, symbols and characters, which leads to difficult to read. They usually tend to use the right part for these skills, which are not designed for this job and that six times slower. It is clear that scientists consider these genetic variations and statistics that the inheritance is one of causes of dyslexia. 2.2 Hearing Problems at an Early Age It is frequently point out that the first five years of a childs life are important for the ability to read and write in accordance with natural languages. In the event that the child is suffering from colds or other continuously during the first years of his life, without medical intervention prior to the visit of the health center, may be exposed to ban prayer from time to time and thus may lead to hearing loss. This means that there is a break in the learning process of the child because of those problems in the hearing. If the child does not have the ability to hear words correctly, and thus lead to delays in the phonemic awareness of the child that leads to learning difficulties, such as dyslexia (Bradford, 2009). 3. Intervention for Dyslexia 3.1 Definition of intervention According to Wall (2003) definition of intervention as An intervention is an interaction between two people to bring about change and, therefore, early years practitioners undertake interventions each time they are working with children. Interventions may be short, medium or long term and will be planned carefully to ensure effectiveness and appropriateness. and He suggested idea which is what and how should practitioners draw up a plan or design different and useful intervention programs for each child as a case individually, by clarifying how it could encourage teachers or staff of these children collaborative work by each category of activity classroom, which can be caused by structured plan which made through specialists. It can be seen that intervention has become a significant key in resolving of psychological educational issues which is more effective to clarify access for these issues or problems and also it is useful in reaching positive results, especially for children with learning difficulties who are at risk for any particular type of learning difficulties. It is important to note that it should be look at if one parent has dyslexia, which is likely to move to one of their children as a result it is important there is focus on the family history, which may to be assisted to alert teachers and parents therefore, it may get appropriate intervention program for these children (Augur,1993 ). If we pay enough attention to Augur indicate that developmental dyslexia is justified for certain reasons, first reason, it may be very difficult to clarify kind of developmental dyslexia that a child is born through t according to the results of brain injury as a result of stroke or an accident, etc. Moreover, the second reason which is that many specialists agree that most of these children, who are smart in most courses with the exception of some basic academic skills that need to develop and therefore it is likely that the teachers are providing success and development of the natural growth of children with dyslexia, if they were with the fact that dyslexia may not be curable but it needs to useful intervention programs. 3.2 Stages of intervention in England According to DfES (2003) that stages of intervention used in schools in Britain, with almost identical stages in America, called (waves). Wave 1, which is refer to initial education for literacy in schools in that there must be effective integration of all children, high quality and a daily reading and writing hour with appropriate differentiation required. Whereas, if the children do not respond correctly to primary classroom of literacy guidance therefore, intervention will be necessary. In addition, Wave 2 shows a set of specific interventions which are additional a specific time, which refer to some children who are in need of support services to accelerate development and they can work at or above age-related t the highest of expectations . Wave 3 which is describes the governance for a small number of children and intervention is necessary to provide specifically for the processor speed of evolution or allow children to achieve their potential. It is Clearly that , this could i nclude the 01:01 or specific interventions, so when it comes to older children, which is usually refer to the approach set out specifically for children that have been identified as requiring special education support by working in the school environment. The best example, as noted by the researcher that Wave 3 intervention which is reading recovery. 3.3 Issues associated with intervention It is frequently point out that there is controversy about how to build effectively intervention programme. Researcher will present the most important factors agreed for potential success in the planning and production of the correct intervention program. First, it taking into accounts the assessment procedures and examination in psychology that can explain exactly what are the skills which need to develop in children. According to Fawcett and Lynch (2000) to examine dyslexia test (designed by Nicolson and Fawcett, 1996) will be the most successful for all the teachers to their schools. In addition, this test has become highly efficient because it is interested in semantic and verbal fluency as well as knowledge of numbers. Another reason which is how quickly the application of this test for example, it is take one minute to the task of writing and one minute in the skill of reading, moreover, spelling and other skills that could take two minutes. According to Pumfrey and Reason (2001) enhance the quantity and quality of cognitive development of children is significant factor to reach the appropriate intervention for them, it is important to take into account to confirmation that intervention at the earliest time that in order to that this procedure may not lead to a delay which is undesirable for children who have reading difficulties. In the same context, we may emphasize that the assessment procedures and examination need to be more focus by that stage, even before the application to avoid any future problems (Talcott,, 1997). However, the researcher as a teacher for special education as well as lecturer at the Department of Special Education recognizes that there are no tests in a uniform and there is a clear lack of evaluation of courses in schools in Saudi Arabia. It is clear that this is an opportunity for the researcher to obtain the correct method of assessing and screening for children who have difficulties reading in schools and the transfer of these measures and the right strategies for the development of the educational process in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Talcott (1997) indicate that there is another factor which is related to people who may play an active role of detection of children who have dyslexia. Therefore, there are some people around the children who have learning difficulties and they who provide full care to alleviate the difficulties that may be in these children as well as they are trying to find the appropriate methods in educational process such as, parents, professionals as well as specialists in health care. 3.4 Type of intervention for reading difficulties 3.4.1 Reading Recovery Reading Recovery has been designed by Marie Clay, who is a researcher in New Zealand (Reading Recovery Council , 2006). Mary did studies which allowed her to develop appropriate methods for the detection and intervention for reading difficulties for children. In addition, this program is studies based intervention that is applied in more than 10000 schools in New Zealand, Canada, United Kingdom and Australia. it was a developed to offer intervention for children who have reading difficulties ( Au, Mason1990). According to Au, Mason (1990) The main of reading recovery is to be able to offer intensive one-on-one support children who have reading difficulties in first grade and thus provide appropriate intervention to help them succeed before they improve their reading difficulties (Savage, John 1994). Moreover, it is aimed at less than twenty percent of school classes in first grade classroom. It is clear that it is not easy to make a decision about who children should be given to this program. children are taking a test and depending on the lowest scores for this test and then to hold this program for children got the lowest scores by trained teachers in the application of this program for children who have difficulties reading to reduce these difficulties and to read well (Kline, Anne 1997). It is frequently point out reading recovery is developed to be compatible with the regular school system. Each school needs to confirm that teachers should have the ability to download the program continuously during the year. It is clear that it has the ability to work in a variety of levels for instance it works with teachers, in school, children, and in the education system to provide assistance in reducing reading difficulties in children (Reading Recovery National Network,2006 ). Savage, John (1994) pointed out that Reading Recovery which is a program works differently for each child who is in need of this program. Selection of children for this program based on the report which is submitted by the teacher, and a survey about what child has knowledge of letters and concepts about print process, text reading . In addition, the program begins with what the child is to have the ability to do, then it builds on what they are trying to do and work what child need to learn about reading (Reading Recovery National Network,2006 ).According to Chapman, Turner ( 2003) the program is designed to work one-on-one instruction for thirty minutes a day for a period of twelve to twenty weeks through trained teachers. Moreover, it is designed to regular classroom reading guide. In addition, It is set out to assist based on childs strengths. The main concentration on one-on-one lessons is concentrate on comprehending the various messages in reading and students have the ability to build messages in writing skill (Reading Recovery National Network). According to Savage, John (1994) reading recovery includes that: -Reading Familiar Books: students tend to read books that they enjoy. Teachers, however, will observe how child read these books then they will assist the child while children are reading this book. -Assessment of reading strategies: the students will have a book that have never read it, in the previous lesson, the child will read that book for the teacher, then the teacher will use recorder while the child is read. Working on Letter recognition: student will be trained to look at the different letters, and begins to be familiar with them. -Introducing new books: teacher will choose a number of different books that are suitable for students reading level. Reading new books: The teacher will show a new book for the student, and then the student will be supposed to read it in the next lesson. In addition, the teacher and student will discuss the book and provide assistance to prepare for the understanding of the story in that book before read it. It is clear that Reading program was designed to meet the special the individual needs of reader who has difficulties in reading, which seems different from child to child. Working Individually with students, preparing lessons to respond to the individual needs of the child, will help to develop childrens reading (hapman, Iversen, Tunmer 2005). It is clear that the reading recovery has extensive one-on-one instruction. Not surprising to anyone that the intensity of the program and work individually with students which is influential to stage of intervention for those students who have reading difficulties. Recent research indicates that the method of one-on-one is more effective in teaching in regular classes that lead to achieving the individual needs for each student (Chapman, Tunmer 2003). Reading Recovery Council (2006) pointed out that many of the children are in different levels reading skill, establishment of lesson for all student is not always effective to that a student who does not understand what may be understood by other child and therefore teachers can create a lesson that will contain five elements: working with letters, reading books which are familiar to student, observe and record what is read by the student and reading new curriculum (Barnes, Bonnie 1996). it is possible to assist students achieve effective reading performance by the individual needs of them early. In addition, working individually with students to guide them educating reading strategies as well as to provide some time for the application so that they will be capable to achieve in grade level (Educational Commissions System of the States 2000). It seems clear that the strategy of one-on-one which allows teachers to provide students all comments, compliments and questions that the teacher knows a student who has the ability to answer those questions. In addition to, the reading recovery teachers have the ability to help the student and give feedback for the work he is doing (Barnes, Bonnie 1996). On the other hand, reading recovery will take 30 minutes for each student .It must take into account that there are some things that may be affect the students when they are in the classroom, for example: days of illness, field trips and workshops (Barnes, Bonnie 1996). Barnes, Bonnie (1996) indicate that time consuming is one of the problems related to educating Reading Recovery through the amount of paperwork which are side by side with the teaching of reading recovery to individual students. For example, a written analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the child, the report of the expectations of progress through the identification of long-term and short-term goals to child daily lesson programme. Another drawback of reading recovery is teachers. Many teachers do not usually have support from their colleagues in the school as well as they have difficulty in access to feedback on their lessons. Moreover, there are many teachers in the classroom do not have a sense of the impact of reading recovery program on the children because it is presented only one or two students in their classrooms (Noble, Jo Anne 1995). In addition, There are many teachers who are working only has the half-time reading recovery teacher. Therefore, they have the abilit y to service only about eight children each academic year. In addition, many schools have approximately a hundred and fifty first grade students, this is evidence that only about five or six percent of children have the ability to receive reading recovery programme (Barnes, Bonnie 1996). As has been mentioned before the goal of reading recovery is to guide children in learning techniques and assist to practice time , children have the ability to deliver on grade level (Frankas, George 2000).However, reading recovery is working , regardless of economic status, gender and social status of the group of children that led to the acceleration of the effective progress this programme (Educational Leadership 1990). Centre, Wheldall (1992) pointed out that to make reading recovery programme more effective must change three elements: Behavioural change in teachers. The child behaviour change acquired through teachers. There is a need for the school to change the regulatory requirements for administrators and teachers. It is clear that the results of reading recovery program is that it offers effective intervention for students in grade school and then treatment, instead of falling into the failure in reading difficulties for these children. In addition, it is providing strong support for teachers and enables them to become more effective in reading recovery programme. Moreover, the most important outcome of the program is to be has number of children in grades 2-6 to have a few problems in reading difficulties once and then the program is implemented effectively and correctly (Noble, Jo Anne 1995). 4. Method of teaching reading skills for children with dyslexia As has been mentioned before is that in fact the intervention to address reading difficulties in children with dyslexia is a successful strategy to provide support appropriate for them. But it is frequently point out that , it is to look for on the strengths and weaknesses of the learner and learning styles appropriate through the school by the teacher, which is suited to the needs of each individual. Because it is known to us that each and every child with dyslexia is different according to the file and function of cognitive and learning styles appropriate to him (Reid ,1997). 4.1 Whole Language Instruction According to the study carried out by Frank, 1978, it was having an impact in supporting the Whole Language Instruction, teaching reading is a natural counterpart to learn to speak the sense of learning to read instinctive. In addition, Whole Language Instruction may focuses on education to be of total to the part and not vice versa (e.g. learning the skills not included in the Whole language instruction), and learning to write must occur through fun activities functional meaning, and the focus on education priority, instead of keeping the roots. Moreover, it consenter on the learner who is the center of education rather than the curriculum and education should be based on individual interaction. It is clear that it may supports education in a social environment. Moreover, the teacher is the one who set the curriculum to be concepts are interrelated rather than dividing them up into multiple skills or subsets of content and evaluation focuses on the strengths of the learner. It seems that Whole Language Instruction is a tool to deal with the class and adjust and it may provides disadvantaged students to be able to overcome reading problems ( Pressely, 1994). However, according to Mather (1992 ) Whole Language Instruction team believe that retail could disrupt learning process, so they are opposed to direct teaching of encoding, because it split the language into separate clips and skills, which may lead to the language is not used, as well as a waste of time. The Whole Language Instruction may provide meaning to the texts and it is focusing on both reading and writing, as learn the rules of language may be done without the need to teach voice. It is clear that Educators and researchers stress fact that learning may be the best when there is enjoyable environment for learning and learner will be active participant in learning process as well as the teacher must take into account individual differences between children. These principles focus upon the way of Whole Language Instruction in learning to read, the child will read full text and then he begins to recognize words and letters with helping by teacher and the child will feel motivation when he is reading and that is the most important needs, which increases the capacity of the child with dyslexia to learn to read correctly (Fuhler,1993 ) Learner (2000) pointed out that there are basics of teaching reading difficulties by using method of Whole Language Instruction as following: Firstly : Reading is one of the elements of internal language which is very close to oral language and written language, so teachers who use this method confirm the language written and oral reading lead to the child will be improved, when he learn to read and there is a relationship between linguistic vulnerability in children and reading difficulties, children who have language problems or mobility are likely to develop problems in writing in the early stages. Secondly: The method of verbal language may be acquired by the natural use, according to the teachers who use Whole Language Instruction that children may learn to speak without the need for special training and this means that children will learn to read naturally through exposure to learn to read by focusing on language and books which related to fluency of language. Thirdly : Teachers who use the method of Whole Language Instruction avoid use of separate teaching which does not focus on the link between parts of the meaning of language, as well as the way of teaching that focuses on use of separate exercises, and they believe that books that divide natural language into small pieces and mysterious that could make teaching is difficult. In addition, Whole Language Instruction users think that learning of characters is normally by way of education , it is clear that learning of letters should not be separate, but it is normally acquired through reading. 4.2 Code- emphasis Instruction It is clear that we should understand the strategies of coding in Whole Language Instruction or comic reading (Orthographic) , which are one of the strategies that provide the opportunity to children to read the words by this method because they saw these words for many times . Therefore, they have image of the words in the long-term memory, the image of words are not required to be stored in the same format and font but it will be merely images. To use this strategy, the reader should has knowledge of the alphabet and how to process link this letters together. Moreover, there are many of readers who tend to use this strategy because they have the satisfaction for the words through use of a number of consecutive times as a result, they are willing to remember these words at any time. However , when they are exposed to new words so they tend to use method of Code- emphasis Instruction so they used the analysis of these words and read them (Hoien,2000). According to Learner ( 2000 ) children with dyslexia often need to direct learning and systematic training on reading because the direct training on the skills of voice reading is significant due to the primary task which is a specific part which is used later for reading comprehension. However, children who start to learn to read slowly, they will become readers are strong later. It is clear that Code- emphasis Instruction is effective in that the reader have a broad reading skills in school and In the external environment, he will be able to read any textbooks or other books. In addition , Intensive reading may provide the opportunity for the growth of concepts and verbal knowledge for how to write and read the text. Therefore, ch

Une Petite Mort: Death, Love and Liminality in the Fiction of Ali Smith :: Ali Smith Death Love Essays

Death, Love and Liminality in the Fiction of Ali Smith The morbid marriage of love and death is not an original topic to postmodernist writing or to Scottish literature. Diverse forms of literature from Greek myth to Shakespearian tragedies have hosted stories of tragic love and romantic deaths, with varying nuances of darkness and romance. Nonetheless, this paper will attempt to establish a link between Ali Smith’s writing, postmodernist fiction and Scottish fantasy, while looking at the topic of love and death in conjunction with the concept of liminality. Liminality (from the Latin limen: limit) is an intermediate state, it refers to passage rituals and to existence between borders. Stories of love and death often suggest the abrupt interruption of the former because of the sudden occurrence of the latter. Sometimes, however, love and death share the same intermediate dimension between life and afterlife: the liminal stage. As this paper will stress, Smith’s writing deals with love and death in the context of liminality. Characters’ identities fluctuate and sometimes crumble altogether. Rational boundaries of time and space lose coherence. Stories develop in the uncanny limbo left after a death or some other form of disappearance. It is in this liminal dimension that love and death are sinisterly married in Smith’s work. When asked to comment on the love and death motif in her stories, Smith admitted that the two are closely related. In her words: Of course love and death are linked, from the French notion of orgasmic small death through the metaphysical poets all the way to something Winterson sums up in the perfect opening sentence, in Written on the Body: ‘why is the measure of love loss?’ (Germanà  , p.370) In Smith’s fiction, ‘petite mort’ is a more complex motif than the French metaphor for sexual climax. In her stories the trope of love and death does not refer only to the erotic sphere of love. In fact, because of its close relationship to liminality, the traditional topic acquires a more metaphysical twist throughout Smith’s fiction. The coexistence of love and death questions the boundaries between life and death, overcomes the threshold of the physical world to reach beyond this limit, and explores all the possibilities in between. In fact, death often seems to be a paradoxical vehicle through which life and love are manifested and asserted. The notion that death may overcome the borders between life and afterlife suggests a deeper analysis of the concept of liminality.

Macbeth: Many People Were Involved In the Death of Duncan :: Macbeth essays

Macbeth: Many People Were Involved In the Death of Duncan There were many people involved in the death of Duncan, the King of Scotland. However, Macbeth bears the major responsibility for the murder. Macbeth committed the task by his own hand. He understood the significance of the prediction in relation to his own ambitions. Finally, Macbeth was aware of his actions and he accepted them. Macbeth murdered Duncan. He was the one who stabbed the King and he admits that freely in the play. "I have done the deed" relates Macbeth to his Lady after he completed the objective. (II, ii, l.19) Before the murder he says "I go and it is done; the bell invites me. Hear it not, Duncan, for it is a knell That summons thee to heaven, or to hell." (II, I, l.69-71) In such he plainly states his intent to murder Duncan and again later on, he mentions in a soliloquy that "To know my deed, ‘twere best not know myself." (II, ii, l.92) Preceding the actual death of Duncan, Macbeth's ambitions became apparent as the significance of the prediction and actual events emerged. Being an ambitious man, Macbeth said "I have no spur To prick the sides of my intent, but only Vaulting ambition which o'erleaps itself And falls on the other." (I,vii,l.25-28) In this speech Macbeth broadcasts his immense ambitions which are the only reason he is pursuing the witches prediction. Macbeth, upon hearing the witches speak was startled at their prophecy. Banquo said to him "Good sir, why do you start, and seem to fear / Things that do sound so fair?"(I,iii,l.54-55) Macbeth was startled because of the implications of the forecast. Macbeth had thought before about the very thing that he was now being told was his. He was infatuated with the idea and he lusted after information pertaining to it. "Stay, you imperfect speakers, tell me more: By Sinel's death I know I am thane of Glamis; But how of Cawdor? The thane of Cawdor lives, A prosperous gentleman; and to be king Stands not within the prospect of belief, No more than to be Cawdor. Say from whence You owe this strange intelligence? or why With such prophetic greeting? speak, I charge you." (I,iii,l.73-81) Macbeth began to fluster and ramble on, as if in fear that the truth of his thoughts become clear to those near him. He wanted more information from the witches on how he was to become King, but he feared that he would be considered

Oran: The Good, The Bad, And The Ugly :: essays research papers fc

Oran: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly Oran, peaceful and unprepared, is overcome by Bubonic plague. Separation, isolation and indigence become the common lot of distinct characters whose actions, thoughts and feelings constitute a dynamic story of man imprisoned. Prior to the closing, people went about their business as usual, almost oblivious to the plague. When Oran was shut off from the world, its residents had to adapt to the new conditions of life. Men reacted to the terrible visitation in different ways, according to their beliefs and characters. I believe their reactions were based on their personality and their experience during the plague. Each react to the circumstances of the plague in a unique way, and emerge from the plague with his own new perspective of life and its values. The residents of Oran are as travelers on a long, straight, boring road. They came upon the plague as a traveler comes upon an unexpected fork in the road. Some veer left, some right. A few are unaffected by (or unaware of) the fork in the road, and proceed straight ahead with their lives with very little change in habit. These persons lift themselves above the desperation and focus their actions on the grueling responsibility of making life better for themselves and others. The greatest affliction the citizens of Oran suffer when visited by the plague is not fear but the sense of separation, the loneliness of exile, the pain of imprisonment. The plague has an affect on most everyone in Oran. Some become better people, some worse. Grand, Rambert and Paneloux are all markedly changed afterward. Dr. Rieux and Tarrou are virtually unaffected. Cottard undergoes but a temporary metamorphosis. Monsieur Cottard is a criminal hunted by the law. A silent, secretive, plump little man, he comes to Oran to hide from prosecution. M. Cottard is basically a man lacking in morals, drive and direction, a, " a traveling salesman in wines and spirits." He tries unsuccessfully to hang himself when life seems hopeless. Prior to the plague, he had an aloofness and mistrusted everyone. When the plague descends upon the city, he develops an altruistic side. He sets out to help people. He becomes more amiable as the plague progressed through the population. He tries to take control of his life but becomes discouraged by circumstances. Rather than dealing with the circumstances effectively, he allows them to dominate his life. When the plague passes, and his philanthropic efforts are outmoded, he looses his humanitarian side and starts randomly shooting. The plague gave him only a temporary suspension from prosecution and the plague had

Baz Luhrmann’s Romeo and Juliet Essay

Being a virgin viewer of Baz Luhrmann’s Romeo and Juliet, I found myself dissatisfied as I began to see the famous balcony scene reveal itself on the courtyard floor. â€Å"Where is the barrier, the ‘stony limits’ that separates the lovers from each other?† I inquired. How could the most renowned scene of William Shakespeare’s most popular play be missing? I continued to watch in astonishment as the daring scene developed into a masterpiece. Baz Luhrmann and Franco Zeffirelli both achieved unique interpretations of William Shakespeare’s script which accomplish the chief goal of displaying the extremely passionate love between Romeo and Juliet. The movies were made twenty-nine years apart and had many specific and not so obvious differences between them including the setting, script, and camera work that are significant to accomplishing the two director’s diverse objectives for the films. The most noticeable difference found between the balcony scenes of the two movies is the different settings. There actually is a balcony in Luhrmann’s version, but it is much smaller and is only used for a brief instant in the scene. Romeo climbs to the top of the balcony in both versions, but in Luhrmann’s film, to his surprise, he finds an ugly nurse instead of the attractive Juliet. This comedic moment is essential for distracting the audience from their predictions. The Capulet mansions are both astounding and enormous but bestow different emotions. The mansion in Zeffirelli’s Romeo and Juliet is very castle-like with towering stone walls surrounded by trees, and a large balcony. This plain and simple appearance is important because the focus of the scene is on the two young lovers and the stony limits that separate them. Luhrmann’s film has a very luxurious and romantic looking set that captures the viewers’ attention from the start. The scene is more colorful with white sparkling lights, statues, ivy, and most importantly, a brightly lit up blue swimming pool. The water provides a perfect medium for Romeo and Juliet as they confess their love for each other. The water does not on ly serve symbolic importance but provides a modern obstacle between Romeo and Juliet that can be compared to the balcony. Although the viscous water acts as a barrier, the pool scene involves much more contact between the lovers than Zefferelli’s balcony scene. Light piano music fills the air instead of the louder rock music that is found throughout the film. In both versions, Juliet is clothed in all white, portraying her innocence. Zefferelli’s set resembles the setting William Shakespeare describes in his script, while Luhrmann modernizes the setting and translates script to appeal to today’s generations. Shakespeare wrote his plays in a Victorian language that is not especially familiar to most people today. Zefferelli was quite aware of this, but made very few adjustments to the script. His play targets people who already know the story of Romeo and Juliet. Zefferelli takes advantage of the opportunities film offers by using technology to create realism, background music, props, and backgrounds to aid in the comprehension of the balcony scene of this romantic tragedy. On the other hand, Baz Luhrmann cuts the original script from 190 lines to 100 lines. He also adds occasional words to enable a smooth flowing dialogue. He maintains Shakespeare’s Victorian language because of the ingenious poetry and rhythm it has that flows like music to one’s ears. Luhrmann eliminates a lot of the difficult and time-consuming language as well as lines that do not pertain to his modernized setting. For example, lines 70-182 of Act III, Scene II are eliminated, in which Juliet calls Romeo back then forgets why she did so. Luhrmann’s adjustments to the script allow for a more easy translation of Shakespeare’s language. In addition to the changes in the script, the scene can be comprehended strictly by viewing the moving picture due to the careful selection of costumes, the use of body language, the romantic setting, and the camera technique. The camera work during the balcony scene of both films is very strategically planed to give the viewers a much more personal experience than that of the stage. Zeffirelli’s scene makes use of the long balcony as the camera pans along it continuously, not allowing the eyes to rest. This keeps the viewers involved in the film while close ups are used to show the passionate emotions of the lovers. In Baz Luhrmann’s version of the scene, the camera is not as active as one might imagine. The scene begins with long shots and as it develops, the camera moves in to extreme close-ups to show every detail of the lovers’ expressions. The camera gives the viewers an intimate relationship as it moves slowly and more closely to the actors in contrast to the chaotic camera movement in other scenes. The quantity of editing used in Baz Luhrmann’s scene is significantly reduced when compared to the editing in other parts of his film. The editing pace goes from every couple seconds per shot to about twenty seconds per shot. The length of shots in Zeffirelli’s scene is even longer. Also, Zeffirelli’s scene uses slight high-angle shots on Juliet that gives the effect that Juliet is in a more superior position than Romeo. In Luhrmann’s film the lovers remain level with each other throughout most of the scene, giving a sense of equality. Both filming techniques used in the two versions were very effective in creating the close relationship between Romeo and Juliet as they reunite for the second time. The power and passion of love found within the balcony and pool scenes of the different films is one that leaves an everlasting impression in the hearts and minds of the viewers. Although interpreted very differently by two brilliant directors, the scenes both relay Shakespeare’s message. Baz Luhrmann did so in a way that transformed the play from Shakespearian times to the youth of the twentieth century. He used state of the art technology, familiar actors, a modernized setting, and adjustments to the actual script to translate Shakespeare’s play into modern times. On the other hand, Franco Zeffirelli attempted to make his film as much like Shakespeare’s play as possible. He used film to his advantage to provide a closer experience than that of the stage, but few changes to the actual script and setting were made. He wanted to reflect the play to the best of his ability to the screen. Baz Luhrmann’s objective was to bring Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet to the homes of people around the world. Both films were successful in achieving their goals, but were very unique because of the differences in the setting, script, and camera work. Works Cited â€Å"Imagery in Luhrmann’s Romeo + Juliet.† American Film Institute. 1 Feb. 2005 < http://www.fathom.com/course/28701907/session4.html>. Marks, Margaret. â€Å"Brand New Old Stuff.† 1 Feb. 2005 . Romeo and Juliet. Dir. Franco Zeffirelli. Perf. Olivia Hussey and Leonard Whiting. Paramount Pictures, 1968. William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. Dir. Baz Luhrmann. Perf. Leonardo DiCaprio and Claire Danes. Twentieth Century Fox, 1997.

The Greeks: Crucible of Civilization

The Greeks: Crucible of Civilization is a documentary and TV series about the rises and falls of Athens. Liam Neeson narrates throughout the documentary of the civilization of ancient Greece. The filmmaker Anthony Geffen covered both the fourth and fifth centuries B. C. Actors were also used to portray historical events and people during this period. The documentary starts with the history of Athens beginning with the rule of Peisistratos whom transformed the city. He needed allies, in that way his son could have the throne.Peisistratos encouraged farming and provided loans and soon Athens was exporting olive oil to nations around the Mediterranian to Egypt, Persia, and Phoenicia. The booming trade made Athens wealthy and prosperous. Athens became the big apple of Greece. At this time potters were the lower of the lows in Athens. After the death of Peisistratos, his son Hippias took over. He ruled fairly at first, but after his brother’s death, he turned to be a tyrant. Self d efense was his only motive and since his only threat was from aristocrats, he turned against them.The aristocrats under the leadership of Cleisthenes captured Hippias and banished him from Athens. The people of Athens then took destiny into their own hands. Isagoras and his partners locked themselves in the Acropolis, but they were forced to surrender and he was forced into exile. Cleisthenes was recalled from exile and asked to form a Government. He came up with the idea of people, both rich and poor, discussing the issues facing them and casting votes to make a decision.On issues like rising of taxes, building of roads and going to war, votes were cast, with a white stone for yes and a black one for no. The super power in the world at that time was Persia. Athens was attacked by the Persians in the battle of Marathon. Athens asked for Sparta’s help, but did not receive it. Though outnumbered, Athens won the battle. A man who participated in the war was Themistocles. He was risen to power through democracy. He was one of history’s greatest leaders and he knew that to hold out against another Persian invasion, they would need a strong navy. The Triremes were warships.They became useful in another war against the Persia when Athens defeated them in the Straits of Salamis. Themistocles was then ostracized, and then died in Persia. The other people highlighted in the documentary were Pericles who built the Parthenon. A major decision was taken by Pericles to attack Sparta resulting in the Peloponnesian War. This war lasted 27 years and finally Athens surrendered to Sparta. Aspasia was his lover. She was made fun of in the theaters and in some tragedies. Pericles died from the plague, which was one of the most devastating pandemics in human history.Socrates was a man who used reason and logic and cared about individuals. He was a man who loved debates. He was later blamed for Athens defeat by Sparta. He was pleaded guilty with the death penalty. The reason why he dies was because he questioned the world around him and was easiest person to blame. Though the film is called The Greeks, however it is essentially a story of Athens and its people. The movie contains re-enactments of various scenes which consist of people dressed in ancient costumes moving in front of an out of focus camera.It gives the viewers a basic knowledge of their society at the time. However, the music in the background was too loud and very distracting making it difficult to hear the movie. One information that struck to my attention that they forgot to mention is that there were four major battles in this war; Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis and Plataea. Only Marathon and Salamis are noted in the documentary. This film covers the basic information about the history of Athens and is directed towards people who are beginners in this subject.However, for the people who are experts might find some inaccuracies and embellishments in this documentary. In conclusio n, Athens had been through many battles and changes throughout their history, from the battle of Marathon to the creation of democracy. It shows viewers who are new to this subject a good understanding of their leaders and famous philosophers. The documentary does a great job explaining and depicting the social, economic, political and cultural aspects of that period.